Amidst battling a cold and feeling physically drained, Commander-in-Chief John Adams, driven by a sense of duty, traveled from his hometown of Quincy to Trenton in 1799. There, he convened with his cabinet to deliberate on strategic options in the event of possible war with France.* At the time, American maritime trade was under constant threat from French warships at the Atlantic, provoked by the administration’s favorable stance toward Britain, a rival of revolutionary France. Adams believed in Peace Through Strength, thus he was interested in establishing a strong navy as a deterrent and a tool for leverage in future negotiations with France._†

Previously, Adams’ envoys faced a degree of humiliation at the hands of the French Directory, where they were largely dismissed and treated as subordinates. However, with Napoleon Bonaparte’s ascension to power, the dynamics shifted, offering renewed hope for a better relationship between the U.S. and France.

The newly established United States faced the delicate challenge of navigating alliances among the dominant European powers. Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists favored policies that aligned with Britain, while Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, sought closer ties with revolutionary France. John Adams, burdened with the responsibility of his office, despite being aligned with the Federalist camp, displayed political mastery by treading carefully between these two competing interests, ensuring a balanced approach for the young nation with a focus in developing industries and the navy.₁

Alexander Hamilton, a prominent Federalist renowned for his eloquence and energy, fervently advocated for war with France, perceiving President Adams’ reluctance as a direct challenge to his Federalist principles. Convinced that a war was necessary, Hamilton had previously persuaded George Washington to support the formation of a resource consuming standing army, with Hamilton himself appointed as its commander. At the time, Hamilton’s ambition was well-known, and it was rumored that he suffered from a type of “Napoleon complex,” a notion reinforced by Abigail Adams, who mockingly referred to him as “Hamilton Bonaparte.” in one of her letters.₂

Despite his military preparations and focus, President Adams was resolute in his opposition to war. In a final effort to change the President’s mind, Hamilton traveled to Trenton for an unscheduled meeting with Adams. Despite his illness and want for rest, John Adams accepted to attend this private meeting with him, and over hours of discussion, it became clear that Adams would not yield, and the standing army would be eventually disbanded in order to economize on funds. This was a significant blow to Hamilton, despite his reputation as a brilliant speaker he had failed to persuade John Adams, and despairingly returned to New York.

A year later, during the election campaigns, Hamilton, although a Federalist himself, driven by personal grievances, took a drastic and unwarranted step to undermine the re-election of John Adams. He published a scathing pamphlet on the character of John Adams, outlining why he should not be re-elected as President. Motivated purely by emotion and a desire for revenge, Hamilton’s actions ultimately damaged not only Adams’ campaign but also his own career. Since his actions strengthened Republicans, he was not to be trusted again by his own camp, the High Federalists. Knowingly or unknowingly, his action was akin to a politically self-destructive act, a “kamikaze mission” of sorts. The pamphlet proved highly influential on public opinion, with many attributing Thomas Jefferson’s victory in the election to its impact. Ultimately, Hamilton would be removed from the political stage. Several years later, on July 11, 1804, following another emotional outburst, Hamilton’s confrontation with Aaron Burr, Vice President under Thomas Jefferson, culminated in a duel that resulted in his defeat and tragic passing.

This episode in American history highlights a deeper truth about human nature: even during the Enlightenment, a period dominated by reason and intellect, emotions—especially negative ones—could overpower even the brightest of minds, such as Hamilton. It serves as a reminder that intellectual prowess and education do not guarantee mastery over one’s emotions. Emotional regulation is a separate skill that must be cultivated. One must recognize possibly detrimental inner feelings as potential obstacles to long-term goals and avoid taking any action while under its influence. It is crucial not to send letters or engage in formal communication when feeling discontented or agitated. Instead, one must give time, allowing these emotions to subside naturally before addressing those who may be perceived as the source of such negative feelings.

However, not all unpleasant inner feelings should be viewed as detrimental to one’s well-being. There are instances where so-called “negative” emotions, when aligned with a sense of justice and rhetoric, can be harnessed for a good cause. Rather than always suppressing them, there are times when we must strategically channel these emotions to serve a higher purpose. Regardless, the rational mind must maintain full control, serving as the ultimate arbiter of emotions, determining when and where certain feelings may be appropriately expressed in the real world. This responsibility should never be entrusted to the lower self.

*At the time, there was a Quasi-War between France and the United States.

†John Adams is known as the founding father who established the first US Navy, something that he took extensive pride in.

‡At the time, George Washington had retired from public office to manage his estate at Mount Vernon, Virginia. However, he retained significant influence, and while John Adams did not agree with the nomination of Hamilton as commander of the standing Armies, he agreed with the nomination as a sign of respect to George Washington.₃

Footnotes:

1) For further reading on John Adams political career, I would recommend reading John Adams by David McCullough.

2) Ibid.

3) Ibid.

Image Credits:

Image 1: Public domain image depicting Hamilton, painted by John Trumbull in 1805.

Image 2: https://www.nyhistory.org/blogs/alexander-hamiltons-version-of-neverjohnadams-2